| Harold L. (Hal) Mansfield, Ph.D. | |
| 7366 North County Road 27, Loveland, CO 80538 | |
| Phone: 970.667.3878 | E-mail: hal.mansfield3@gmail.com |
A true history of hypnosis would probably have to extend back in time beyond recorded history, since even the most ancient of records deal with "states" or "conditions" which we now call hypnosis.
In spite of this long anecdotal history, the serious modern concern with hypnosis begins with Franz Anton Mesmer, a Viennese physician and the discoverer of "animal magnetism." Mesmer's important work with his "new found power" began in Paris in 1781, after he had been expelled from Vienna as a charlatan.
In this paper, I will present a definition of hypnosis, give a little history, tell how hypnotic trances are induced, look at how hypnosis is currently used, mention some theories, tie it all in to some of the ten subsystems on the class handout and, finally, make a summary statement.
"hypnosis (hip no' sis) n., 1. an artificially-induced state "resembling, sleep, characterized by heightened susceptibility to suggestion" (Stein, 1967, p. 700).
Through this and similar definitions, hypnosis can be seen to apply to a fairly good number of the ten subsystems contained on the handout for this class. But, more of that later. Let's turn to a brief history of hypnosis, starting with Mesmer.
Mesmer thought the human body was much like a magnet and that disease resulted from a disarray of the body's "magnetic fluid." Using real magnets he effected some early "cures" of symptoms (Boring, 1957; Moss, 1965).
In Paris, he became famous for his baquet magnetique, a wooden tub containing iron filings, ground glass and water. Iron rods protruded out of the tub. Patients would touch the rods to the afflicted areas of their bodies, apparently with a reasonable degree of satisfaction. Mesmer's practice flourished and included some of the well-to-do of Paris (Moss, 1965).
Other doctors, losing patients to Mesmer, complained. A committee was formed to Investigate and, after several years, concluded that animal magnetism was nothing more than "excitement of the Imagination." (The idea that hypnosis is not a true altered state will come up again and again.) Mesmer 'retired' to Switzerland.
Early in the 1840's in England, a physician named James Braid began to study "animal magnetism." He found that eye fatigue seemed to be a factor and coined the term 'hypnotism' (from the Greek hypnos, or sleep). The term has 'stuck,' though many including Braid himself tried to change it (Moss, 1965).
In India, a British doctor named Esdaile actually performed surgery using hypnosis as an anesthetic. This caused renewed interest but the introduction of drug anesthetics into medicine at about the same time turned most physicians away from hypnosis as a medical technique (Boring, 1957).
Back in France, interest in hypnosis was renewed at a clinic in Nancy, France. There, A. A. Liebeault, whom some feel is the true "father" of modern hypnotism, began to study the phenomena. Liebeault felt suggestion was, indeed, the key to hypnotic phenomena (Moss, 1965).
H. Bernheim, who became one of Liebeault's followers, extended the work at Nancy and culminated years of research with a book entitled "Suggestive Therapeutics." For Bernheim, there was no hypnosis] he felt it was all suggestion (Moss, 1965).
In another vane, Jean Charcot was investigating hypnosis. Charcot generally was thought to be the greatest neurologist of his time. He began to use hypnosis in the treatment of mental disorders, particularly hysteria. He came to feel that hysteria and hypnosis were one and the same, or virtually so (Moss, 1965).
A then obscure Viennese physician, Sigmund Freud, traveled to Paris to study with Charcot. After several months of intensive study, Freud went back to Vienna and used hypnosis in his practice. Later, he abandoned it in favor of "free association." Hypnosis largely became a "plaything" suited for the stage and for parlor entertainment, though some continued to use it professionally in medicine, psychology and psychotherapy (Boring, 1957).
Research interest in hypnosis gradually grew in the early 1900's. Finally, a major American experimental psychologist, Clark Hull, wrote a book summarizing the field generally and his own work in particular (Hull, 1933).
Hull concluded that essentially all of the phenomena of hypnosis could be accounted for by "hypersuggestibility," with or without the induction of the "trance" (Hull, 1933). Hull's ideas have carried through to influence a number of modern researchers, among whom Shor, Orne, Barber and Sarbin seem to view hypnosis as something other than an altered state of consciousness. For example, Sarbin talks about "role-playing" when accounting for hypnosis and Orne about "demand characteristics" of the situation (Barber, 1969; Moss 1965).
erhaps the greatest of all modern hypnotists, Milton Erickson, developed techniques for "waking" and "instant" hypnosis. He used these with striking success in a practice of psychotherapy spanning many years (Haley, 1973).
Controversy still rages between those who view hypnotism as a special state and those who do not.
Two key factors usually necessary for a hypnotic session are a hypnotist and a subject. (Self-hypnosis is possible, but usually only as post-hypnotic suggestion.)
The subject is asked to become comfortable, usually by sitting or lying down. Some subjects can be hypnotized while standing, but this is often more difficult and may be hazardous (i.e., if the person should fall).
Although it is not really necessary, many hypnotists have their subjects fixate (stare) at some object. The object may be stationary or in regular motion, if visual; auditory stimuli such as metronomes may be used.
While the subject is comfortable, the hypnotist, or operator, commonly talks to the subject in a relaxing, confidence instilling, monotonous way. Suggestions regarding comfort and sleep may be introduced.
Once the subject seems to be in a hypnotic state, tests to determine the depth of the state and the subjects' reaction to suggestions may be made.
Four areas in which hypnosis is commonly applied will be discussed. While not exhaustive, these are probably the main-areas of application (Barber, 1969; Hilgard, 1965; Moss, 1965).
1. Entertainment: Some of the most dramatic cases related to hypnosis and its consequences come from stage performances by accomplished hypnotists. Subjects show resistance to pain, great strength, amnesia, and other behaviors. Unfortunately, the use of "shills" and other charlatanism cast doubts on the phenomena observed in this application of hypnosis.
2. Medical: The early promise of the application of hypnosis has been realized in modern times. Hypnosis is used extensively as an anesthetic, tranquilizer and in other ways. Dentistry has found it useful, both in allaying patients' fears and as an anesthetic. "Painless" childbirth is possible, as are various forms of surgery.
3. Psychotherapy: Milton Erickson is only one of many, many psychotherapists who have used hypnosis. Since the time of Charcot, hypnosis has never been completely absent as a therapeutic tool, though it has had its low points of use. Use is now widespread and probably growing. As with all therapies, it has mixed results. Results seemed to be keyed to the therapist, the patient and the nature of the problem; one, two, or all three in concert.
4. Research: Before Hull's seminal research efforts and his 1933 book, many in psychology frowned on hypnosis as an area of study. After Hull's book was published, interest lagged, since his results did not favor viewing hypnosis as a 'special' state.
In recent years, hypnosis has become a research area that is both professionally acceptable and sufficiently challenging to attract a growing number of well-qualified investigators. The future looks bright, in part fueled by the very disagreement over whether hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness, or not.
A large number of theories exist to account for hypnosis and its many characteristics and phenomena. Summarizing and comparing such theories are well beyond the scope of this report, and the ability of this reporter (Moss, 1965; White, (White, 1941).
However, the theories can be divided roughly into three kinds: 1) physiological; 2) psychological; and 3) mixed.
Some physiological theories relate hypnosis to sleep, viewing it as a special case of sleep. Others, while accepting the sleep-like nature of certain hypnotic states, relate it to non-sleep physiological change in the brain.
The great Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov regarded hypnosis as a spreading of cortical inhibition (in Moss, 1965).
Hull (1933) suggests it is psychological when he views hypnosis as being a state of hyper-suggestibility.
Sarbin (1950) defines it in terms of role-playing, thus conceptualizing it as a social psychological phenomena. Similar views are held by White, Orne, Shor and Barber.
Hypnosis can affect all human consciousness subsystems. Rather than discuss all of these, I will present only a few examples.
In-put processing: I have seen a hypnotized subject eat a large onion, just as if it were an apple, after being told it was an apple. Clearly, taste proprioceptors may be affected in hypnotic states.
Memory: Through hypnotic age-regression childhood memories may be recalled. Also, hypnotically induced 'amnesia' is common.
Motor output: Subjects can be made to stagger as if drunk, hold seemingly difficult postures for long periods of time and perform rare feats of strength.
These are just a few of the 'phenomena' that subjects have displayed under the condition that is commonly known as hypnosis.
Hypnosis, whether through altered awareness, suggestibility, or whatever, clearly "affects" the body's subsystems.
How is one to make sense out of the vast range of phenomena, applications, theories and methods of hypnosis, all existing within such a checkered background?
No easy answers emerges.
Clearly, the fact of 'something' which we call hypnosis has been a part of the human experience for a very long time.
Before dismissing the suggestibility idea, some consideration must be given to the areas of religious conversion, faith healing, placebo phenomena, spontaneous disease remission and other equally intriguing and little-understood phenomena of the human mind and the human body.
The human mind is a powerful force. Its effect on the body can be powerful -- whether for good or ill. Many hypnotic-like happenings occur in the absence of a demonstrable 'trance state.' But, on the other hand, many compelling physical and psychological events have been reported under the circumstance of (apparently) hypnotic trance states.
Where does the answer lie?
In the future. And, a very interesting and challenging future it should be. Hypnotic research and, therefore, understanding of it as a human state, altered, or otherwise, is still in its infancy.
Barber, T.X. Hypnosis: A scientific approach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1969.
Boring, E. G. History of experimental psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.
Haley, J. Uncommon therapy. New York: Ballantine Books, 1973.
Hilgard, E. R. Hypnotic susceptibility. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World, 1965.
Hull, C. L. Hypnosis and suggestibility. An experimental approach. New York: Appleton-Century, 1933.
Moss, G. S. Hypnosis in perspective. New York: Macmillan, 1965.
Pavlov, I. P. Conditioned reflexes. New York: Oxford University Press,1927.
Sarbin, T. R. Contributions to role-taking theory: I. Hypnotic behavior. The Psychological Review, 1950, 37, 255-270.
Stein, J.(Ed.) The random house dictionary of the English language. New York: Random House, 1967.
White, R. W. A preface to the theory of hypnotism. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1941, 36, 477-505.